The Bugis

The Bugis are an Austronesian ethnic group originally from South Sulawesi (Celebes), Indonesia, particularly from the region around Makassar, Bone, Wajo, Soppeng, Sidenreng, and Luwu, collectively known as the Ajattappareng confederation. The name Bugis comes from their word “Ugi”, referring to the legendary ancestor La Sattumpugi, a sailor and kingdom founder in Wajo.

The term Bugis appears in colonial documentation as early as the 16th century, particularly in Portuguese sources. These records highlight the increasing recognition and usage of the term during the era of European colonial expansion in Southeast Asia, reflecting the broader integration of the Bugis into regional historical narratives.

South Sulawesi’s coastline is deeply indented with bays and harbors — a perfect training ground for seafarers. The region lacked abundant fertile land for large-scale agriculture, so trade, fishing, and seafaring became natural livelihoods. Surrounded by islands and key trade routes, the Bugis turned the sea into their economic lifeline.

Political Turbulence and Expansion (17th–18th Century)

The turning point came in the 17th century with the collapse of local power structures:

• The Makassar kingdom (Gowa–Tallo) dominated regional trade until it was defeated by the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in 1667–1669.

• The Bugis states, once subordinates or rivals to Makassar, were drawn into conflicts and alliances involving Bone (Bugis) and Gowa (Makassar).

• The Treaty of Bungaya (1667), which gave the Dutch control of Makassar, disrupted traditional trade networks.

• Many Bugis refused Dutch domination and migrated - becoming a diasporic maritime nation spreading across the archipelago.

The conquest of Macassar by Speelman, by Romeyn de Hooghe

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makassar_War, 8 Oct 2025

The Great Bugis Diaspora

After the fall of Makassar, thousands of Bugis took to the sea - sailing to:

• Riau–Lingga (modern Riau Islands)

• Johor and Selangor (Malaysia)

• Sumatra’s east coast

• Borneo (Kalimantan)

• The Malay Peninsula

• And eventually, Singapore

Why They Excelled

• They were master navigators, using monsoon winds, celestial navigation, and an intimate understanding of tides and currents.

• Their vessels, especially the phinisi schooner, became legendary - fast, stable, and ideal for long-distance voyages.

• They didn’t just carry goods - they carried political and commercial influence, establishing Bugis enclaves across the region.

• By the 17th and 18th centuries, they had established trade settlements in Riau-Lingga, Selangor, and Johor, often acting as middlemen between local Malay states and European powers.

• Their trade networks connected Sulawesi, Borneo, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula, dealing in spices, forest products, textiles, and slaves.

A Phinisi Schooner, 1983

Source: https://www.newmandala.org/unesco-heritage-lists-indonesian-wooden-boat-building/, 8 Oct 2025

Trade and Commerce Network

By the 18th century, the Bugis were the commercial backbone of the Archipelago.

They traded:

• Spices from the Moluccas

• Gold and pepper from Sumatra

• Birds’ nests, tortoiseshell, camphor, and forest products from Borneo

• Rice and textiles from Sulawesi

• British and Indian goods (after European contact)

They created interconnected trade circuits, linking local ports with global trade flows through Dutch, British, and Malay intermediaries.

Politics and Power: The Bugis as Kingmakers

• The Bugis were not only traders - they became political players in the Malay world.

• In the Johor-Riau Sultanate, Bugis leaders rose to prominence as warriors and administrators.

• The most famous was Daeng Parani and his brothers — collectively known as the Five Bugis Princes (Lima Saudara Bugis).

  • They helped restore the Johor Sultanate in the early 18th century.

  • In return, they gained hereditary rights as Yamtuan Muda (Viceroys) in Riau.

• This alliance gave the Bugis political legitimacy and access to vast trade networks under Malay royal patronage.

The region witnessed the invasion of Haji Fisabillah of Johor-Riau during the battle against the Dutch East India Company on 6 January 1784 in Tanjung Pinang, Riau. It was one of the largest military campaign in the Strait of Malacca during the 18th century.

Source: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/articles/Riau-Lingga_Sultanate, 8 Oct 2025

The Riau-Lingga noblemen with Sultan Sulaiman II (seated, in the middle). (c.1867)

Source: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/articles/Riau-Lingga_Sultanate, 8 Oct 2025

The Legacy of the Five Bugis Brothers

In 1744, the Malay world had long witnessed the rise and influence of the “Five Brothers” from the Bugis lands of Sulawesi. In fact, the history of the Malay Archipelago features these “Five Bugis Princes,” whose impact on the socio-political arena was even more pronounced. Their influence and political legacy made them and their descendants a powerful de facto force across the Malay world from roughly the 18th to the 20th centuries.

The Five Brothers who shook the Malay world’s socio-political scene some three centuries ago were the sons of Opu Tendriburang Daeng Rilaga, son of Raja La Maddusalat, said (per Tuhfat al-Nafis and Salasilah Melayu dan Bugis - both by Raja Ali Haji) to be the first Bugis ruler to embrace Islam (God knows best). According to the genealogies in those works, Daeng Rilaga had an elder brother named Opu Daeng Talana, who later became ruler of Luwuk in Bugis lands with the title Pajung Ri Luwuk, and a younger brother Opu Daeng Biyasa, who became head of the Bugis and a powerful (mayor/commander) figure for the Dutch in Java.

According to Tuhfat al-Nafis, Opu Daeng Rilaga and his sons journeyed from To Pammana to Bone in Sulawesi, then to Java to meet his brother Opu Daeng Biyasa, who held high office under the Dutch there; they sailed on to Pulau Siantan (one of the Natuna Islands in the middle of the South China Sea), then to the Malay states on the Malay Peninsula, and eventually to Cambodia (possibly Kampuchea, or perhaps neighboring Champa). There, Opu Daeng Rilaga won a cockfight against a Minangkabau prince named Raja Culan and received as a prize a keci (a large vessel). He sailed back to Siantan; the keci was then dismantled and from its timbers six penjajab war boats were built.

By God’s decree, Opu Daeng Rilaga died on the return voyage from Cambodia, leaving his five sons on Siantan Island, all of whom were already of age. Previously exposed to the challenges of wandering abroad, the five brothers had become braver, more resilient, spirited, and determined to try their fortunes in foreign lands. Their courage, perseverance, and exceptionally strong fraternal bond - “like water that cannot be cut” - made them one of the most remembered and honored legendary brotherhoods in the history of the Malay world.

1) Opu Daeng Parani

Entrusted with leadership over his brothers after their father’s death—as the eldest of the five - Opu Daeng Parani, son of Opu Daeng Rilaga, had already shown warrior qualities and bravery back in Bugis lands. After their father’s passing, he organized a naval force on Siantan consisting of six penjajab war boats equipped with cannon and each able to carry forty soldiers. The Bugis fleet then sailed to the southern Malay Peninsula, specifically Johor, which was in turmoil from a succession struggle.

The death of Sultan Mahmud (known as Mangkat Dijulang) on 3 September 1699 without a close heir led Johor’s nobles to appoint Bendahara Tun Abdul Jalil as Sultan, with the title Sultan Abdul Jalil Riayat Shah IV (1699–1718). However, the rule of this Bendahara line was challenged by Raja Kechil, who claimed to be the son of Sultan Mahmud and gained support from the Minangkabau of the coastal Pasisir. Raja Kechil seized Johor with ease and proclaimed himself Sultan Abdul Jalil Rahmat Shah (1723–1746).

According to Tuhfat al-Nafis, when Opu Daeng Parani and his brothers arrived in Johor, they found the state had already fallen to Raja Kechil and asked in astonishment, “How could a state this large be defeated so easily?”

Sultan Abdul Jalil IV was deposed and to be reinstated merely as Bendahara by the new ruler. These events angered the Bendahara family, especially the son Tengku Sulaiman and his sister Tengku Tengah, who had been betrothed to Raja Kechil, but the engagement was broken when Raja Kechil fell in love with and married Tengku Kamariah, Tengku Tengah’s own younger sister. Tengku Sulaiman and Tengku Tengah decided to seek the help of the five Opu Daeng brothers to “wipe the black mark from their faces.”

As a guarantee, Tengku Tengah was married to Opu Daeng Parani, and Tengku Sulaiman promised to appoint one of the Bugis brothers as Yang Dipertuan Muda (Viceroy) after Raja Kechil was expelled and the Bendahara line restored to Johor’s throne. The agreement between the Bendahara lineage and the Bugis brothers was blessed by Sultan Abdul Jalil Riayat Shah IV himself.

Raja Kechil seized the opportunity to act against the deposed Bendahara-line Sultan while the five Opu Daeng brothers were away from Johor dealing with matters in Siantan and Matan. Many Johor subjects began to believe slanders that Raja Kechil was not of the original royal line and thus supported the Bendahara line, to the point that Tengku Tengahspirited her sister Tengku Kamariah away from Raja Kechil’s court.

The climax came when Raja Kechil and his forces pursued Sultan Abdul Jalil IV. The former Sultan was killed in 1720 by Raja Kechil’s captains after the dawn prayer at Kuala Pahang, and buried there.

After Sultan Abdul Jalil IV’s death, Raja Kechil brought all the late Sultan’s heirs back to Riau, including reclaiming Tengku Kamariah. The tragedy deeply affected the heirs, especially Tengku Sulaiman, who harbored a grudge against Raja Kechil and ultimately summoned the five Bugis brothers back to Johor.

In short, the Bugis forces, led by Opu Daeng Marewah with seven penjajab and supporting boats, sailed to Riau to fight Raja Kechil. War broke out for two days in 1721 CE (1134 AH) and the Bugis won.

Opu Daeng Parani then accompanied his brothers, Opu Daeng Marewah and Opu Daeng Chelak, to equip thirty large ghurab ships in Selangor and to rally the loyalty of the numerous Bugis merchants settled in Selangor, Langat, and Linggi.

They also attacked and dismantled Raja Kechil’s power base in Linggi (now in Negeri Sembilan), forcing him to retreat to Siak, leaving Linggi to the Bugis princes.

Pulau Riau was eventually taken by the Bugis, and Tengku Sulaiman was ready to be installed as Sultan. However, a new Sultan’s installation required the royal regalia, which remained in Raja Kechil’s hands in Siak. Tengku Sulaiman asked the Bugis princes to retrieve the regalia. At that time an agreement was made between Tengku Sulaiman (for the Malay nobility) and Opu Daeng Parani (for the Bugis nobility), recorded in Tuhfat al-Nafis and binding on both sides in the Johor–Riau–Lingga Empire for generations:

Opu Daeng Parani said: “If we succeed this time in attacking Siak, then Raja Sulaiman’s side shall be the Yang di-Pertuan Besar (Senior Ruler) forever in his descendants, and our side shall be the Yang di-Pertuan Muda (Viceroy) forever in our descendants; it cannot be otherwise. You may choose any one of us five brothers whom the people favor; that one shall be the Yang di-Pertuan Muda—without fail. Moreover, the Yang di-Pertuan Besar shall be like a woman—if he is given to eat, then he eats. And the Yang di-Pertuan Muda shall be like a man: if there is any matter or business, it is as the Yang di-Pertuan Muda says. All these terms in our agreement cannot be altered and shall be observed by our descendants forever.”Raja Sulaiman replied, “Agreed.”

In short, the five brothers seized Johor’s royal regalia from Raja Kechil in Siak. Tengku Sulaiman was installed as Sultan of Johor in 1722, while Opu Daeng Marewah was proclaimed the first Yang di-Pertuan Muda of Riau. By this pact, the Sultanate was reserved for the Malay royal line, while the office of Yang di-Pertuan Muda was the exclusive right of the Bugis line.

While Opu Daeng Parani was in Selangor, a letter reached him from Sultan Muhammad Jiwa Zainal Adilin Muadzam Shah II (1710–1778) of Kedah, whose throne had been seized by his brother Raja Nambang. After consulting his brothers and obtaining Sultan Sulaiman’s consent, Opu Daeng Parani marched to Kedah with his brothers. The Sultan’s side and the Bugis defeated Raja Nambang in 1723, and in this first civil war Opu Daeng Paranimarried Tunku Aishah, the Sultan’s sister.

But in 1724, a second Kedah civil war erupted: Raja Nambang sought help from Raja Kechil of Siak, while the Sultan again called upon the five Bugis brothers. The fighting was fierce: by day Opu Daeng Parani captured Raja Kechil’s fort, forcing him to leap into the surrounding moat; by night Raja Kechil retook the fort.

The Bugis used ghurab ships to attack Raja Kechil’s position. During the siege, Opu Daeng Parani, standing on the verandah of a ghurab, ordered his men to bombard the fort. By God’s decree, the enemy’s cannon struck him in the chest, and Opu Daeng Parani was killed. He was buried at Kampung Ekor Lubuk, Sidam Kiri, Sungai Petani, in Kedah.

Opu Daeng Parani’s descendants played a major political role in the Johor–Riau–Lingga Empire after his death. His eldest son, Opu Daeng Kemboja (1745–1777), became the third Yang di-Pertuan Muda of Riau after Opu Daeng Chelak’s death. Later Raja Ali bin Daeng Kemboja bin Daeng Parani (1784–1806) became the fifth Yang di-Pertuan Muda after Raja Haji Fisabilillah fell a martyr fighting the Dutch at Malacca in 1784.

Meanwhile, Daeng Khadijah, Opu Daeng Parani’s eldest daughter, married Raja Alam, son of Raja Kechil of Siak—making the former foes related by marriage—and had Tengku Badariah. Tengku Badariah married Sayyid Usman bin Sayyid Shahab al-Ba’ Alawi and had a son Sayyid Ali.

Sayyid Ali became the sixth Sultan of the Siak Seri Inderapura Sultanate after his predecessor Sultan Yahya died in Terengganu (his tomb remains at Kampung Che Lijah, Dungun). From Sayyid Ali onward, Siak was ruled by Qurayshi Arab descendants (who carried Bugis blood through Daeng Khadijah) rather than the line of Raja Kechil.

2) Opu Daeng Menambun

Daeng Menambun, son of Daeng Rilaga, was more influential in Kalimantan history, alongside his youngest brother Opu Daeng Kemasi. The second of the five brothers rose after a civil war in the Matan Sultanate between Sultan Muhammad Zainuddin (1665–1724) and his brother Pangeran Agung, who usurped the throne.

Sultan Muhammad Zainuddin sought refuge in Banjarmasin, asking Sultan Tahmidullah I (1700–1717) to attack Pangeran Agung at Matan, and also sent letters to the five Bugis brothers. Though Banjarmasin dispatched many troops (Banjarmasin, Kota Ringin, Sempat Mendawi), their attack failed and they withdrew after their commander Panglima Pantas was killed.

Sultan Muhammad Zainuddin refused to surrender and locked himself in a mosque. The mosque was besieged by Pangeran Agung’s men of Bugis descent, Daeng Matekkoh and Haji Hafiz, and Matan’s troops. The Sultan lamented to the besiegers—his own kin and officials—moving them to tears; they brought him food and drink despite orders to the contrary. He was besieged for five months, yet reportedly grew stouter rather than thinner.

When Opu Daeng Menambun and his brothers arrived from Johor, they freed the Sultan and brought him before Pangeran Agung. Enraged that they freed his brother without permission, Pangeran Agung expelled both his brother and the Bugis princes from Matan. They went to Banjarmasin to seek leave to bring back the Sultan’s family, then moved to Kuala Kandang Kerbau and settled there.

Upon arriving in Kuala Kandang Kerbau, Opu Daeng Menambun fell in love at first sight with the Sultan’s eldest daughter Puteri Kesumba. He dared not voice it out of respect for her father, but “kept his feelings, hoping for God’s decree.”

Fortuitously, Sultan Muhammad Zainuddin himself asked that one of the Bugis brothers marry one of his daughters. Opu Daeng Menambun volunteered to wed Puteri Kesumba, and they married in a modest ceremony at Kuala Kandang Kerbau.

Seven days later, Opu Daeng Menambun and his brothers were tasked with attacking Pangeran Agung in Matan. Daeng Matekkoh and Haji Hafiz were assigned to block them, but Daeng Matekkoh sailed to Siak rather than fight the Bugis princes, later siding with Raja Kechil against them.

Without that Bugis champion, they captured Pangeran Agung; on Sultan Muhammad Zainuddin’s orders, he was confined in a small fort with thirty women under tight guard until his death. The five brothers then returned to Johorand later fought Raja Kechil, as told earlier. Opu Daeng Menambun also joined his brothers in the Kedah civil warbetween Sultan Muhammad Jiwa II and his brother Raja Nambang.

After the wars, Daeng Menambun and the youngest brother Opu Daeng Kemasi sought to return to Kalimantan. Before parting ways they swore a solemn oath:

“Whichever of us faces hardship, without fail we must all help one another.”

Upon returning to Matan, Opu Daeng Menambun received the title Pangeran Emas Surya Negara from Sultan Muhammad Zainuddin, while his wife Puteri Kesumba was styled Ratu Agung Sinuhun. Opu Daeng Menambunwas appointed Ruler of Mempawah (1737 CE) because Puteri Kesumba was the daughter of Sultan Muhammad Zainuddin and Utin Indrawati, the only child of Panembahan Senggaok and Puteri Cermin, the original rulers of Mempawah of Dayak descent. With Panembahan Senggaok’s passing, Puteri Kesumba became absolute heir to Mempawah, and her husband Opu Daeng Menambun was installed as ruler.

They set their capital at Sebukit Rama and made Mempawah a prosperous Islamic sultanate in Kalimantan, implementing Islamic law. During his reign, famed scholars Sayyid Hussein Habib al-Qadri and Shaykh Ali bin Fakih al-Fatani arrived to preach, serve as muftis, and advise the ruler.

Opu Daeng Menambun fought in the Pinang Sekayuk War in 1728 CE (1141 AH), sparked by slander from a Dayak against a follower of Gusti Jamiril (Daeng Menambun’s son) over trade debts involving goods brought from Batavia (Jakarta). He fought Pangeran Dipati (brother of Panembahan Senggaok) and his son Raden Jaga. He received aid from his oath-bound brothers - Opu Daeng Kemasi from Sambas, and Opu Daeng Chelak (now the second Yamtuan Muda of Riau) - and from Ratu Bagus of Landak. The Mempawah-Sambas-Riau-Landak alliance won. Dayak groups swore loyalty to his rule afterward.

His marriage to Puteri Kesumba produced ten children (five sons, five daughters). Through this large progeny, the Bugis-line ruler of Mempawah forged extensive kinship ties with Bornean polities like Brunei, Landak, Pontianak,and Sambas.

Opu Daeng Menambun died on 26 Safar 1174 AH / 7 October 1760 CE (other accounts: 1166 AH / 1752 CE). He was succeeded by his eldest son Gusti Jamiril, titled Panembahan Adi Wijaya Kesuma. His descendants continued to rule Mempawah until the Japanese occupation; ultimately the state was absorbed into the Republic of Indonesia.

3) Opu Daeng Marewah

While the five brothers were in Matan, a letter arrived from Johor sent by Tengku Sulaiman, seeking to overthrow Raja Kechil, who had killed his father Sultan Abdul Jalil IV at Kuala Pahang. After reading the letter, the brothers, incensed, rose, drew their kris and made a Bugis oath of fealty with a sharp blade. The third brother, Opu Daeng Marewah, declared:

“If I have not taken Riau with all its dependencies and handed it to Raja Sulaiman, I forbid myself to set foot on Bugis soil - or else I shall die.”

From Tuhfat al-Nafis and their biographies, one may conclude Opu Daeng Marewah stood out as the strategic mind among the brothers. He was famed as “Kelana Jaya Putera,” said to be earned after aiding the Dutch against Pariaman in Java.

Opu Daeng Parani prepared a fleet to attack Raja Kechil at Pulau Riau, appointing Opu Daeng Marewah as commander-in-chief, and Opu Daeng Chelak as Grand Commander. Opu Daeng Menambun and Opu Daeng Kemasi served as right and left war commanders. Bugis nobles such as Daeng Mangngatuk became senior captains; Daeng Massuro and Daeng Menampuk served as inderaguru (guard leaders). Tuhfat al-Nafis records their armada:

“Once their war preparations were firm, they sailed to Riau. The main force numbered seven large vessels; one keci was broken up to make penjajab, and there were many Bugis boats such as pintak and kura-kura, with smaller craft besides. About a thousand Bugis and Bugis retainers, with two chiefs over forty senior retainers: the first Indera Guru La Malu, the second Indera Guru To Jerpak.”

A great battle ensued in Riau. Cannon roared from both sides. Bugis warriors rowed in with muskets and pistols, engaging Minangkabau boats and Raja Kechil’s followers. The fierce Bugis assault forced Raja Kechil to withdraw to Pulau Bayan.

As commander, Opu Daeng Marewah split his forces: one part fortified Tanjung Pinang and bombarded Pulau Bayan; the other rowed upstream in Riau and attacked Raja Kechil’s boats at Pulau Bayan. The strategy sowed chaos - Raja Kechil’s men abandoned the fort to save their boats - allowing the first Bugis contingent to seize Pulau Bayan.

Raja Kechil tried to retreat to Pulau Penyengat but was intercepted, then fell back to Pulau Lingga in heavy rain, where the Bugis won their first victory over him in 1721 (1134 AH).

After this, Opu Daeng Marewah went to Selangor and Langat to enlist the many Bugis merchants long settled there and increased his armament to thirty ghurab with cannon.

While they were in Selangor, an incident occurred in Linggi, then under Raja Kechil. Bugis fishermen with fish traps (belat) had their traps cut by Linggi’s headman, a follower of Raja Kechil. The traps were brought to Opu Daeng Marewah and his brothers, enraging them. He prepared to attack Linggi, but the headman asked to summon Raja Kechil first.

Raja Kechil mustered his forces and fought the Bugis. Opu Daeng Marewah ordered his rowing troops to feign a gradual retreat toward the estuary; as Raja Kechil’s boats pursued, the Bugis would hide behind their large ships, which would then bombard the pursuers.

He divided the thirty ghurab into two groups: the first twenty fought and then “retreated” to the estuary; the second ten were split again - six to seize the headman’s land fort, four to attack at night. As Raja Kechil approached the estuary, those ten ghurab struck from behind. He fled toward his land fort, but it had already fallen to the Bugis, who fired on his vessel. Believing the headman had betrayed him, Raja Kechil retreated to Siak and built a fort at Buantan.

Victory at Linggi allowed Tengku Sulaiman and the Bugis to take Riau from Raja Kechil. A pantun was said to have arisen:

Terketai-ketai anak sembilang,Budak merayau dengan galah;Raja Kecik silakan pulang, Linggi diserang Riau yang alah.

Preparations were made to install Tengku Sulaiman as Sultan of Johor, but the royal regalia were with Raja Kechilin Siak. The five brothers were sent to retrieve them. When Raja Kechil refused, Opu Daeng Marewah ordered an assault on Buantan. After fierce fighting, Bugis residents in Siak sided with the five brothers. Raja Kechil retreated upstream; at Simpalan, he surrendered and handed over the regalia.

Tengku Sulaiman was installed as Sultan Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah; Opu Daeng Marewah Kelana Jaya Putera became the first Yang di-Pertuan Muda, and Opu Daeng Chelak married the Sultan’s sister Tengku Mandak. Opu Daeng Marewah later married Tun Encik Ayu, a widow of Sultan Mahmud Mangkat Dijulang, at Perapat Seratus.

He also fought in Kedah’s civil war, and when his elder brother Opu Daeng Parani fell to cannon fire, Opu Daeng Marewah and Opu Daeng Chelak attacked Raja Kechil’s fort relentlessly, forcing him to retreat to Siak.

A letter from Raja Muda Perak, Raja Inu, asked Yang di-Pertuan Muda Opu Daeng Marewah for help to depose Sultan Alauddin Mughayat Shah (1720–1728). In 1728, Opu Daeng Marewah led forces from Selangor to Bernamto attack the Perak seat at Geronggong (near today’s Kampung Gajah). Though Geronggong fell, peace was concluded, and Sultan Alauddin died that same year. Raja Inu was installed as Sultan Muzaffar Shah III. Later, his own Raja Muda would rebel and also seek Bugis help - just as he had done before - (explained below).

During the Pinang Sekayuk War in Kalimantan, Opu Daeng Marewah was inspecting Johor’s territories around Sumatra and planned to send aid afterward. By God’s decree, he died at Pulau Pitung; his remains were brought to Riau and buried at Sungai Baharu on 7 August 1728. He is remembered as Marhum Sungai Baharu, as well as by his lifetime title Kelana Jaya Putera.

4) Opu Daeng Chelak

“The storytellers say that Opu Daeng Chelak was the Bugis prince handsome in face and bearing, and warrior-like in mien… Among the five sons, all were handsome, noble in bearing, and valiant—but Opu Daeng Chelak was the handsomest, making women’s hearts enraptured to behold him.”

After their father’s death, Opu Daeng Menambun dreamt of his brother Opu Daeng Chelak’s manhood extending into the sea and becoming a dragon with its head facing west (the Malay Peninsula) - foretelling, said the astrologers, that Opu Daeng Chelak’s line would hold power in the Peninsula for ages. Thus, after their father’s death, the five brothers sailed to Johor to seek fortune and power.

Brave, persevering, noble (and indeed handsome), Opu Daeng Chelak gained experience fighting Raja Kechil under his brothers’ command - in Riau, Linggi, and Buantan (Siak). After his brother Opu Daeng Marewah became Yang di-Pertuan Muda, he married Tengku Mandak (Tengku Tengah), sister of Sultan Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah.

He joined Opu Daeng Parani and Opu Daeng Marewah aiding Kedah against the Sultan’s brother, now supported by Raja Kechil, in 1724 at Kuala Kedah. Raja Kechil’s side was defeated, but Opu Daeng Parani was killed. After the burial, they returned to Riau in grief.

On the morning of 12 May 1725, about a year later, Raja Kechil again attacked Riau. Johor-Riau forces and Siak’s troops fought off and on. Tuhfat al-Nafis relates that when Raja Kechil and Opu Daeng Chelak met, they would eat and drink together, then return to their lines. The war ended around Dhu al-Hijjah with a truce between Raja Kechil and Sultan Sulaiman. In 1726 (1139 AH), Raja Kechil broke the truce and attacked Riau again, but was defeated in two days by Yang di-Pertuan Muda Opu Daeng Marewah.

During Pinang Sekayuk, a major event struck Johor–Riau: Opu Daeng Marewah died in 1728 while inspecting Johor’s territories and was buried at Sungai Baharu. Sultan Sulaiman appointed Opu Daeng Chelak the second Yamtuan Muda of Johor-Riau.

His first task was to send troops to help his brother Opu Daeng Menambun in the Pinang Sekayuk War. After victory, he returned to Riau and faced repeated attacks by Raja Kechil of Siak and later his son Raja Alam. In one episode, Siak’s forces seized a merchant wangkang (junk) at Kampung Bulang and turned it into a “mobile fort,” but Riau’s forces captured it on Wednesday, 14 August 1737, forcing Raja Alam to retreat to Tanjung Sebadam, then Kuala Riau, and finally back to Siak. That was Siak’s last incursion into Johor-Riau; afterwards, Raja Kechil’s sons Raja Alam and Raja Mahmud fought over Siak’s throne.

On 7 September 1740, while Opu Daeng Chelak was in Selangor, he received a letter from Raja Muhammad Shah (Raja Muda of Perak) requesting Bugis aid to depose Sultan Muzaffar Shah III (Raja Inu). Opu Daeng Chelak gathered his Bugis forces from Selangor and marched on Perak to continue the role once played by Opu Daeng Marewah in the earlier Perak civil strife.

War broke out between Sultan Muzaffar III and Raja Muda Muhammad Shah; after some time, Raja Muda’s side won, and Sultan Muzaffar III withdrew to Sayong. Opu Daeng Chelak, with most Perak nobles, supported and installed Raja Muda Muhammad as the fourteenth Sultan of Perak, Sultan Muhammad Shah (1744–1750). Perak was split between two sultans. Later Sultan Muhammad Shah reconciled and yielded to Sultan Muzaffar III after Opu Daeng Chelak returned to Riau in 1745.

Soon after, Yang di-Pertuan Muda Opu Daeng Chelak died on 18 May 1745 (17 Rabi‘ al-Akhir 1158 AH) after 17 years in office, and was titled Marhum Mangkat di Kota. His nephew Opu Daeng Kemboja bin Opu Daeng Parani became the third Yang di-Pertuan Muda of Riau.

Opu Daeng Chelak’s line went on to exercise immense political power in the Malay Peninsula to this day. He had two sons, Raja Lumu and Raja Haji. Raja Lumu was installed as the first Sultan of Selangor in 1776, and Raja Haji became the fourth Yang di-Pertuan Muda of Riau in 1777.

Raja Haji’s descendants continued as Yang di-Pertuan Muda such that the office effectively became hereditary in his line, from Raja Ja‘afar bin Raja Haji (the sixth) through Raja Muhammad Yusuf al-Ahmadi (1858–1899), the tenth and last. Sadly, the Riau-Lingga Sultanate was formally abolished by the Dutch on 3 February 1911.

But by God’s will, the line of Raja Lumu bin Opu Daeng Chelak still holds power in the Malay world today. The Selangor Sultanate, founded by Raja Lumu in 1776, has had nine sultans. May God prolong the life and grant well-being to the sole surviving dynasty of Opu Daeng Chelak still sovereign today-the Sultan of Selangor Darul Ehsan, Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah.

5) Opu Daeng Kemasi

The youngest of the five brothers followed his brother Opu Daeng Menambun into Kalimantan affairs, unlike his other three brothers who loomed large in the Peninsula and the Straits of Malacca.

Sultan Umar Aqamaddin I (1708–1732) of Sambas admired the courage and perseverance of the five Bugis brothers, who had earned great prestige in the Malay world, and wished to take one of them as a son-in-law. He sent a request to the brothers in Johor.

The brothers consulted. Four already had established households; only Opu Daeng Kemasi did not. He was chosen to go to Sambas, accompanied by Opu Daeng Menambun, who also wished to return to Matan.

Upon arrival, Sultan Umar Aqamaddin I joyfully married Opu Daeng Kemasi to Raden Tengah, the Sultan’s sister. He was styled Pangeran Mangkubumi and tasked with governing Sambas’s dependencies.

Opu Daeng Kemasi also aided his brother Opu Daeng Menambun during the Pinang Sekayuk War of 1728.

References:

1. Raja Ali Haji (ed. Virginia Matheson Hooker), Tuhfat Al-Nafis, Yayasan Karyawan & Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1998

2. Raja Ali Haji (ed. Arena Wati), Salasilah Melayu dan Bugis, Pustaka Antara Kuala Lumpur, 1973

3. Leonard Y. Andaya, Leaves of the Same Tree: Trade and Ethnicity in The Straits of Melaka, University of Hawai‘i Press, 2008

4. Tan Ding Eing (trans. Shahabuddin Shafie), Sejarah Malaysia dan Singapura, Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd., Petaling Jaya, 1983

5. Hikayat Opu Daeng Menambun

6. Abdullah Zakaria Ghazali, Johor dan Kepulauan Riau: Berlainan Negara Tetap Bersaudara (PDF)

The Klang Tin Wars

The Klang Tin Wars (mid-19th century) were a series of conflicts in Selangor, Malaysia, largely fought over control of tin mines and political authority, and the Bugis played a decisive role - both as founders of the Selangor sultanate and as military elites shaping the outcome of the wars.

The 19th-Century Context: Tin and Power

By the mid-1800s:

• Tin mining became Selangor’s economic lifeblood, especially around Klang, Kuala Lumpur, and Lukut.

• Malay chieftains and Chinese miners (organized in secret societies like Hai San and Ghee Hin) competed for control of tin-producing districts.

• Within the royal family, succession disputes overlapped with these economic rivalries. At the center of it all stood Bugis-descended rulers - and their control of the Klang Valley’s wealth.

The Klang War (also called the Selangor Civil War, 1867–1874)

This conflict is sometimes called the “Tin War” because it was fundamentally a fight for the tin mines around Klang and Kuala Lumpur.

Main Players

Faction	Leader	Background
Klang faction	Raja Mahdi bin Raja Sulaiman	Of Bugis descent, grandson of Sultan Ibrahim of Selangor. Claimed hereditary rights to Klang.
Selangor royal faction	Tunku Kudin (Raja Ismail), brother-in-law of Sultan Abdul Samad	Kedah prince allied with the Sultan and British merchants.
Chinese miners	Hai San and Ghee Hin secret societies	Supported rival factions depending on local interests.

Bugis Power Struggles Within Selangor

• Raja Mahdi, the key Bugis leader, claimed Klang as his ancestral fiefdom.

• He saw himself as continuing the Bugis lineage of authority dating back to Raja Lumu.

• His power base was in the Klang River region, historically settled by Bugis traders and warriors.

• When Sultan Abdul Samad appointed Tunku Kudin to govern Klang instead, Raja Mahdi rebelled - triggering a civil war.

• Tengku Kudin and Raja Abdullah worked together to oppose Raja Mahadi.

• Raja Mahadi took action to attack Yap Ah Loy in Kuala Lumpur because he had cooperated with Tengku Kudin.

The conflict soon involved:

• Malay warlords, Bugis factions, Chinese miners, Arab traders, and later the British.

• The war devastated Selangor’s economy but reshaped its political landscape.

Sultan Abdul Samad attended the first 1897 Durbar in Kuala Kangsar.

Sultan Adbul Samad residence in Kuala Lamat taken in 1875

Source: https://www.nst.com.my/lifestyle/sunday-vibes/2018/12/441067/lets-learn-more-about-one-selangors-greatest-rulers-sultan. 8 Oct 2025

The Course of the War

• 1867–1869: Raja Mahdi’s forces (largely Bugis and Malay followers) captured Klang and parts of Kuala Lumpur.

• He initially gained support from local chiefs and Chinese miners who opposed the Sultan’s taxation.

• 1870–1873: Tunku Kudin, with backing from Sultan Abdul Samad, Pahang, and British merchants, fought back.

  • The British were wary of instability near Singapore, which disrupted trade.

  • British naval forces eventually bombarded Klang in 1871.

• 1873–1874: Tunku Kudin’s side, aided by Pahang troops and British firepower, retook Klang and Kuala Lumpur.

• Raja Mahdi was defeated and went into exile in Johor where he died.

Raja Mahdi, likely pre 1867

Source: https://intelekblogirls.wordpress.com/2016/06/27/raja-mahadiselangor/, 8 Oct 2025

Outcome and Historical Impact

1. End of Bugis autonomy:

   • The defeat of Raja Mahdi effectively ended the Bugis aristocracy’s independent power in Selangor.

   • The Sultan’s authority became dependent on British protection, paving the way for Selangor to become a British protectorate (1874).

2. Rise of British influence:

   • The British used the war’s chaos as justification to install Residents (advisors) in Malay states.

   • This marked the start of the Residential System that formalized British control over the Malay Peninsula.

3. Transformation of Kuala Lumpur:

   • The Chinese miners and traders who backed Tunku Kudin were rewarded with concessions - especially Yap Ah Loy, who rebuilt Kuala Lumpur as a commercial center.

   • This set the foundation for Kuala Lumpur’s growth into the capital of Selangor and later Malaysia.

Source: https://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/sgor.htm, 8 Oct 2025

The Bugis Legacy in the Klang Wars

Although the Bugis lost political dominance after the war, their legacy remained embedded in the royal and cultural DNA of Selangor:

• The Selangor royal family continues to trace its ancestry to Bugis forebears from Bone and Luwu.

• Many Malay aristocratic titles and traditions in Selangor retain Bugis linguistic and cultural traces.

• The war demonstrated the transition from indigenous (Bugis-Malay) rule to British colonial intervention, marking the end of a distinct Bugis political era in the Malay Peninsula.

The Bugis as pirates

Piracy as a Tool of Economic Control

Piracy in the Malacca straits is nothing new. Srivijaya harnessed and regulated it to serve its strategic interests.

The Srivijayan rulers essentially monopolized piracy in the Straits of Malacca and surrounding seas. Local sea peoples - such as the Orang Laut (“Sea People”) - operated as clients or allies of Srivijaya. They acted as enforcers, guides, and raiders, depending on political need. In return, Srivijaya provided protection, status, and trade privileges.

This system allowed Srivijaya to:

Tax and protect merchant ships that paid tribute. During that period trade between China and India blossomed.

Plunder or block those that didn’t - an early form of “enforced toll collection.”

But by the 11th century, several things changed:

• The Chola Empire attacked Srivijaya in 1025 CE, part of their justification was to punish these maritime raids on Indian shipping. These attacks had devastating effects on Srivijaya's maritime force.

• China’s Song dynasty (960–1279 CE) liberalized private overseas trade, bringing more Chinese ships into the region.

• These ships began sailing through the Straits of Sunda (south of Sumatra) or directly across the Java Sea — bypassing Srivijaya’s chokehold.

• The rise of new ports in East Java, Borneo, and Champa (Vietnam) diverted commerce away from Srivijaya’s old hubs like Palembang and Kedah.

When Srivijaya weakened in the 11th century, reports of increased piracy and insecurity in the Straits multiplied - suggesting that Srivijaya’s “piracy system” had actually kept order.

Later, the Malacca Sultanate (15th century) and even the Johor Sultanate inherited this same structure — using the Orang Laut to secure and tax maritime trade.

The Pirate Age of the Malay Archipelago

From roughly the 1600s to mid-1800s, the Straits of Malacca and Singapore Strait were among the busiest - and most dangerous - waterways in the world. The pirates here weren’t like the Caribbean’s “Blackbeard” types; they were Malay, Bugis, Orang Laut (sea people), and sometimes Chinese maritime groups who knew every current, tide, and island channel in these narrow straits.

Why Piracy Flourished

1. Geography: The countless islands, reefs, and mangrove inlets of the Riau–Lingga Archipelago (just south of Singapore) made perfect hideouts. From Blakang Mati (Today Sentosa) and the Southern Islands, pirates could strike ships moving between the Indian Ocean and South China Sea.

2. Political Instability: Before British rule (1819 onward), there was no single authority controlling the seas. The Johor–Riau Sultanatehad weakened, and local sea chiefs (the Orang Laut) often acted independently.

3. Economics: Piracy was a form of economic survival. When trade was good, many were traders or fishermen; when times were bad, they raided ships.Goods like tin, opium, textiles, and later British silver dollars were valuable plunder.

4. European Encroachment: The arrival of the British and Dutch disrupted older trade routes, pushing many traditional maritime communities into raiding as their livelihoods collapsed.

Blakang Mati’s Role

Blakang Mati (today’s Sentosa) lay right at the western entrance of the Singapore Strait, near the main route ships took to reach the old harbor (now Keppel Harbour).

• Pirates used the southern islands — including Blakang Mati, Pulau Brani, and Pulau Bukom — as observation and ambush points.

• There are British naval records from the 1820s–1840s describing attacks near these waters, often carried out by Malay and Bugis proas (fast, sail-powered boats).

• Some pirates even collaborated with coastal villages who acted as lookouts or fenced stolen goods.

The waters between Singapore, Batam, and Karimun became so infamous that mariners called them “the Pirate Isles.”

The Pirate Wars

To secure the shipping lanes, the British launched anti-piracy campaigns:

• 1824–1850s: The British East India Company stationed naval patrols in Singapore.

• The Royal Navy based at Telok Blangah (near Mount Faber) hunted pirate fleets across the Riau islands.

• Major expeditions, such as Admiral Keppel’s raids (1840s), destroyed pirate strongholds and villages in Sumatra and Borneo.

• The Dutch did the same on their side of the archipelago.

By the 1860s, piracy in the Singapore Strait had largely been suppressed, though it persisted longer in Borneo and the Sulu Sea.

The Pirates Themselves

1. Orang Laut

The original “sea nomads” of the region — allied with the Johor Sultanate — they knew every tide and island. Many later turned to piracy when royal patronage collapsed.

2. Bugis

From Sulawesi (Celebes), the Bugis were famed sailors and traders, but some clans became powerful maritime raiders and mercenaries. Their war prahus could carry 100 men and were feared throughout the archipelago.

3. Lanun (Illanun) and Balangingi

From the Sulu region (southern Philippines), these groups raided deep into the Sulu Sea, Borneo, and the Straits. Their long, fast vessels (lanong) could outrun most colonial ships.

Colonial Observations

• In John Crawfurd’s 1828 account (“History of the Indian Archipelago”), he noted that piracy was almost “a profession” — deeply entwined with politics and trade.

• British records mention entire flotillas ambushing Chinese junks and country traders near St. John’s Island, Pulau Bukom, and Blakang Mati.

• Even after Singapore became a British port (1819), pirate attacks occurred within sight of the harbor lights.

From Pirate Haven to Fortress Island

As piracy waned and Singapore grew, Blakang Mati’s role flipped:

• The same location that made it ideal for ambush became perfect for defense.

• Hence the coastal forts (Siloso, Serapong, Connaught) were built there in the 1880s to protect trade routes rather than threaten them.

The Bugis in Singapore

Bugis Arrival in Singapore (Early 1800s)

• When Sir Stamford Raffles founded Singapore in 1819, Bugis traders were already active in the Riau-Lingga archipelago, under the Johor-Riau Sultanate.

• They began using Singapore as a key regional trading port soon after its establishment as a British free port.

• By the 1820s–1840s, Bugis traders became prominent in the new port, bringing cargoes of tortoiseshell, gold dust, coffee, spices, birds’ nests, and pearls, and returning with British and Indian manufactured goods.

The Bugis Quarter — Kampong Bugis and Bugis Street

• The Bugis settlers built their own quarter along the Rochor and Kallang Rivers, known as Kampong Bugis(Bugis Village).

• Another area, Bugis Street, emerged later as a commercial hub frequented by seafarers and traders.

• The Bugis were known for their distinct boats, colorful sails, and lively trading activities in these areas, which became landmarks in Singapore’s early port economy.

Role in Singapore’s Early Economy

• The Bugis were instrumental in making Singapore a regional entrepôt.

• They linked the new British port with the Indonesian archipelago and Malay world, ensuring a steady flow of regional goods.

• Their trading fleets helped Singapore outcompete older ports like Riau and Malacca, consolidating its position as Southeast Asia’s main trading hub.

Cultural and Social Legacy

• Over time, many Bugis families settled permanently in Singapore, intermarrying with Malays and integrating into the broader Malay-Muslim community.

• Some prominent Singaporean Malays trace ancestry to Bugis lineages.

• The Bugis language and some traditional customs (like silat martial arts and seafaring rituals) survive in fragments within Malay culture.

• In the modern era, Bugis Junction (a shopping mall) and Bugis Street Market preserve the name, though the original Bugis trading community has long dispersed.

Modern Perception and Symbolism

• Today, the Bugis are remembered as pioneers of maritime trade and symbolic of entrepreneurial spirit.

• Their story ties into Singapore’s identity as a maritime crossroads — where diverse peoples contributed to its growth from a small trading post into a global port city.

Historical Records

• References to Bugis traders appear in British colonial records, Raffles’ correspondence, and early travelers’ journals from the 1820s–1850s.

• The Singapore National Archives and National Museum contain documents and exhibits on early Bugis trade.

• Key written sources include:

  • John Crawfurd’s accounts of the Malay Archipelago (1820s)

  • Raffles’ Letters and Dispatches

  • Local Malay chronicles such as Tuhfat al-Nafis (which mentions Bugis princes and the Johor-Riau alliance)